The Evolution of Indian English Poetry: Contributions of Women Poets from Toru Dutt to Contemporary Voices

Indian English poetry, as a literary tradition, has been profoundly shaped by the contributions of women poets whose works transcend temporal, cultural, and ideological boundaries. From the colonial era to the 21st century, women poets have redefined the canon by infusing it with distinctly Indian sensibilities while challenging patriarchal and colonial paradigms. Their poetry—marked by linguistic innovation, thematic boldness, and a fusion of global and local aesthetics—has not only expanded the scope of Indian English literature but also asserted the legitimacy of marginalized voices in a historically male-dominated sphere. This article traces the trajectory of women’s contributions, grouping key figures by era to highlight their collective impact on the growth of the literary canon.

Pioneers of the 19th and Early 20th Centuries: Toru Dutt and Sarojini Naidu

The foundations of Indian English poetry were laid by Toru Dutt (1856–1877) and Sarojini Naidu (1879–1949), whose works bridged colonial and indigenous traditions. Toru Dutt, often hailed as the first Indian woman poet in English, introduced themes of cultural hybridity and existential longing in her posthumously published Ancient Ballads and Legends of Hindustan (1882). Drawing from Hindu myths and Puranic lore, poems like “Savitri” and “Sita” reimagined Indian heroines through a Victorian lyrical lens, blending Sanskritic grandeur with Romantic melancholy. Her bilingual fluency (she also wrote in French) allowed her to “acclimatize an indigenous tradition to the English language” (Das 24), setting a precedent for future poets to navigate cultural duality.

Toru Dutt’s contributions were only realised much later after her unfortunate early demise at a very young age. However, critics like V K Gokak, Srinivas Iyengar, and even M K Naik hold Dutt’s poetry in very high regard. Some critics even go to the extent of calling Toru Dutt the John Keats of India, who could seldom realise the poetry’s strength. Dutt’s poetry celebrating Indian heritage, civilisation and religious richness often touched the best chords to lure traditional readers of Indian English poetry. Once English became popular after the latter half of the 20th century dawned, Toru Dutt’s poetry became a primary interest for academic researchers.

Sarojini Naidu, the “Nightingale of India,” expanded this legacy by merging Indian classical imagery with nationalist fervour. Her collections The Golden Threshold (1905) and The Broken Wing (1917) celebrated India’s spiritual and ecological landscapes, as seen in “In the Bazaars of Hyderabad”:

“What do you sell, O ye merchants? / Richly your wares are displayed.”

Naidu’s poetry, suffused with musicality and vivid imagery, became a vehicle for anti-colonial resistance, though critics like Eunice de Souza later noted her “romanticized Orientalism” (de Souza 45). Despite this, her ability to politicize the personal—as a woman and a freedom fighter—established her as a trailblazer who legitimized Indian English poetry as a form of cultural assertion.

Mid-20th Century: Kamala Das, Eunice de Souza, and the Rise of Confessional Poetry

The post-independence era witnessed a seismic shift with Kamala Das (1934–2009) and Eunice de Souza (1940–2017), whose works dismantled taboos around female desire and identity. Through collections like Summer in Calcutta (1965) and The Descendants (1967), Kamala Das pioneered confessional poetry in India, laying bare the contradictions of gender, sexuality, and marital disillusionment. In “An Introduction,” she defied linguistic and societal norms:

“I am Indian, very brown, born in Malabar, / I speak three languages, write in two, dream in one.”

Her raw, unapologetic voice—a stark contrast to Naidu’s lyricism—challenged the male gaze and redefined the female poetic persona as vulnerable and defiant.

Eunice de Souza, a contemporary of Das, sharpened this critique with biting irony and minimalist precision. In Fix (1979) and Women in Dutch Painting (1988), de Souza exposed the hypocrisies of Catholic Goan society and patriarchal institutions. Poems like “Advice to Women” subverted traditional expectations:

“Keep cats / if you want to learn to cope with / the otherness of lovers.”

Her laconic style and dark humour, reminiscent of Sylvia Plath, deconstructed the myth of the “ideal Indian woman,” offering a caustic counter-narrative to romanticized femininity.

Though less celebrated, Gauri Deshpande (1942–2003) complemented this wave with her introspective explorations of urban alienation and marital strife in Between Births (1968). Together, these poets transformed Indian English poetry into a space for feminist resistance, blending personal anguish with broader sociopolitical critique.

Late 20th to 21st Century: Meena Kandasamy and the Globalised Voice

Contemporary women poets like Meena Kandasamy (b. 1984) have expanded the canon’s thematic and formal boundaries, addressing globalization, diaspora, and intersectional feminism. Meena Kandasamy, a Dalit feminist and activist, represents the radical edge of contemporary poetry. Her collections Touch (2006) and Ms. Militancy (2010) fuse political polemic with visceral lyricism to confront caste oppression and gendered violence. In “Love in the Time of War,” she writes:

“The poem is a grenade. / The poem is a bullet. / The poem is a bomb.”

Kandasamy’s work, while controversial, exemplifies how contemporary women poets use language as a weapon of resistance, reclaiming agency in a neoliberal, hyper-connected world. However, Kandasamy’s online activities and reckless banters devalue her otherwise ‘bold’ poetry to dust, and her contributions reduce themselves to the mere expression of thoughts in random verse that seldom click the notes of ‘standard’ poetry, let aside poetry with value. For instance, as if plucked from a full-page rant, the above lines would seldom inspire any reader to appreciate the qualities of verse that Meena Kandasamy produces.

Tishani Doshi (b. 1975) and Arundhathi Subramaniam (b. 1967) further diversify the canon with their explorations of spirituality and ecological crisis. Doshi’s Everything Begins Elsewhere (2012) weaves myth and modernity, while Subramaniam’s Love Without a Story (2019) interrogates the divine through a feminist lens. Their works illustrate the genre’s evolution from nationalist themes to universal human concerns.

Conclusion: Redefining the Canon

From Toru Dutt’s mythic ballads to Meena Kandasamy’s incendiary verses, women poets have consistently pushed the boundaries of Indian English poetry, ensuring its relevance across generations. Their contributions lie in thematic innovation and their refusal to conform to literary or societal expectations. By centring marginalized perspectives—whether through Kamala Das’s confessional candour or Kandasamy’s Dalit feminism—they have democratized the canon, making it a dynamic, inclusive space. As critic Bruce King notes, these poets have “redefined Indianness as a fluid, contested identity” (King 212), ensuring that Indian English poetry remains a vital, evolving force in world literature.

Further Reading (and the works cited):

• Das, Bijay Kumar. Poetry of Jayanta Mahapatra. Atlantic Publishers, 2007.
• de Souza, Eunice. Nine Indian Women Poets. Oxford UP, 1997.
• King, Bruce. Modern Indian Poetry in English. Oxford UP, 2001.

Opinion by Chitra M for the Desi Readers platform